Antihypertensive treatment during pregnancy and functional development at primary school age in a historical cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the functional development of children born after treatment of mild-to-moderate gestational hypertension with labetalol versus methyldopa, and no antihypertensive treatment. DESIGN: Historical cohort study. SETTING: Twelve Dutch hospital departments of obstetrics. POPULATION: Live-born children born in these hospitals and prenatally exposed to labetalol, methyldopa, or bed rest because of mild-to-moderate gestational hypertension. METHODS: Central nervous system development was measured with standard tests at 4-10 years of age. Linear regression techniques and Pearson's chi-square tests were used to compare the groups with regard to the outcome measures. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Intelligence quotient (IQ), concentration, motor development, and behaviour at primary school age. RESULTS: A total of 202 children were included in the analyses. More children exposed to labetalol had attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) than those exposed to methyldopa (OR 2.3; 95% CI 0.7-7.3), or those born to women who had been admitted for bed rest (OR 4.1; 95% CI 1.2-13.9). Sleeping problems seemed to be reported more frequently after prenatal methyldopa exposure than after exposure to labetalol (OR 3.2; 95% CI 0.6-16.7) or bed rest (OR 4.5; 95% CI 0.9-23.2), although the differences were not statistically significant. Test scores on other aspects of functional development did not differ between the three groups. CONCLUSIONS: In this hypothesis-generating study, labetalol exposure in utero seemed to increase the risk of ADHD among children of primary school age, whereas prenatal methyldopa exposure might influence sleep. Further studies with appropriate sample sizes are warranted to determine the long-term effects of antihypertensive medications.

The scientific output of a Catholic university department of obstetrics and gynecology.

The introduction of in-vitro fertilization (IVF) and prenatal diagnostics (PND) raised moral and ethical problems for Catholic universities. As expected, reproductive medicine research output was very low in departments that did not provide these facilities. It can be demonstrated that, by initiating IVF and PND under strong restrictions, a low scientific output in IVF and PND can be compensated for by increasing scientific output in new areas such as maternofetal physiology, primary prevention of birth defects and preconception care (folic acid and neural tube defects). This increase was mainly due to multidisciplinary efforts.

Abnormal folate metabolism in mothers with Down syndrome offspring: review of the literature.

Altered maternal folate status and homozygous mutation in the methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) and methionine synthase reductase (MTRR) genes can promote chromosomal instability and non-dysjunction resulting in fetal trisomy 21. Folate supplementation around conception therefore has the potential to reduce the frequency of Down syndrome. This finding, in addition to the prevention of neural tube defects, strengthens the recommendation to use folic acid around conception.

Clotting disorders and placental abruption: homocysteine--a new risk factor.

Placental abruption is due to the rupture of the uterine spiral artery. The placenta separates totally or partially from the uterine wall during pregnancy. This serious syndrome has a great risk for the mother (shock and disseminated intravascular coagulation) and her child (mortality or morbidity). To the known risk factors like hypertension, the use of cocaine and smoking, homocysteine is recognized as an independent risk factor for vascular disease and endothelial dysfunction. In contrast to normal pregnancy where the spiral artery endothelium is replaced by trophoblast, the endothelium persists in case of placental abruption. In 165 women with placental vasculopathy and 139 matched controls hyperhomocysteinemia resulted in an odds ratio of 4.7 (95% CI: 1.6-14.0). The C677T mutation gave a risk of 2.5 (95% CI: 1.0-6.0). Even up to 2 or 3 years post-partum evidence could be found of endothelial dysfunction. The combination of hyperhomocysteinemia and thrombotic factors like APC resistance, Protein-C, Protein-S, antithrombin and factor V Leiden increases the risk of placental abruption 3-7 times. The common denominator of the effect of homocysteine on blood vessels could be sited in the process of proliferation of cells that need proper methyl groups for proper function (DNA synthesis and expression). These methyl groups are delivered by D-adenosylmethionine formed from methionine after remethylation of homocysteine. The coagulation factors and plasma homocysteine values can be modulated by vitamins, folic acid and folates in particular. To prove the clinical value of folate supplementation placebo-randomized trials are urgently needed: for placebo to be started after the period of neural tube closure.

Hyperhomocysteinemia and recurrent early pregnancy loss: a meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To quantify the risk of recurrent early pregnancy loss in the presence of elevated fasting or afterload homocysteine concentrations or homozygosity for the 677C-->T mutation in the methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) gene (T/T genotype). DESIGN: Case-control studies published between January 1992 and November 1999 were identified with a MEDLINE-search. These studies were combined with a recent case-control study performed by our own research group. SETTING: Academic research environment. PATIENT(S): Studies published in the English language, concerning two or more pregnancy losses before 16 weeks' menstrual age were included. INTERVENTION(S): Meta-analysis of all of the studies included. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): The number of subjects with and without hyperhomocysteinemia or with the T/T genotype were derived, if necessary the study was supplemented by personal communication with the original authors. RESULT(S): Pooled risk estimates of 2.7 (1.4 to 5.2) and 4.2 (2.0 to 8.8) were calculated for fasting and afterload plasma homocysteine concentrations, respectively. For the MTHFR T/T genotype a pooled risk estimate of 1.4 (1.0 to 2.0) was found. CONCLUSION(S): These data support hyperhomocysteinemia as a risk factor for recurrent early pregnancy loss. Further research should be focused on the pathophysiology of this relationship and on the clinical efficacy of B vitamin supplementation.

Multicenter study of the efficacy, cycle control and tolerability of a phasic desogestrel-containing oral contraceptive.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the efficacy, cycle control and tolerability of a phasic oral contraceptive containing ethinylestradiol 35/30/30 microg and desogestrel 50/100/150 microg. METHODS: A multicenter study was conducted involving 2070 healthy, fertile women, who received study treatment for six treatment cycles. RESULTS: Most of the participants (79%) had previously been using an alternative oral contraceptive. In 10,408 treatment cycles, two women became pregnant while on treatment (Pearl index, 0.25). The incidence of irregular bleeding was 10% before treatment, rising to 27% at cycle 1, and decreasing to 11% by cycle 6. Irregular bleeding was mainly due to spotting rather than breakthrough bleeding and the incidence of breakthrough bleeding remained below 2.2% for most of the study period. Only 1.8% of women withdrew due to bleeding irregularities. First-time oral contraceptive users initially experienced more irregular bleeding than switchers but these differences lessened over time. The most common adverse events during treatment were headache, breast tenderness and nausea. The incidence of these adverse events fell to below pretreatment levels with continued use. CONCLUSION: The phasic preparation was effective and well tolerated.

Hyperhomocysteinemia and other thrombotic risk factors in women with placental vasculopathy.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate coagulation inhibitors and abnormalities of the homocysteine metabolism, which are related to an increased thrombotic risk, as risk factors for placental vasculopathy. DESIGN: A case-control study comparing nonpregnant women with an obstetric history of placental vasculopathy (study group) with nonpregnant women (control group) matched for age and occupation. SETTING: Obstetric outpatient clinic in the University Hospital Nijmegen. SAMPLE: One hundred and one women in the study group and 92 women in a control group. METHODS: Determinations in blood samples of homocysteine concentrations; the occurrence of 677 C-->T mutation in the methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) gene; protein C activities; activated protein C resistance ratios; concentrations of free protein S antigen; antithrombin III activities; and the occurrence of factor V Leiden mutation. RESULTS: Increased risk for placental vasculopathy was found in the study group with elevated homocysteine (odds ratio 2.28, 95% CI 1.18-4.39), MTHFR mutation (odds ratio 3.29, 95% CI 1.03-10.5), decreased activated protein C resistance ratio (odds ratio 2.46, 95% CI 1.06-5.72) and protein C (odds ratio 2.01, 95% CI 1.11-3.65). Any combination of two risk factors in the same individual resulted in a 3.40 (95% CI 1.80-6.42) higher relative risk for placental vasculopathy; combinations of three risk factors in a 6.83 (95% CI 1.52-30.7) higher risk. CONCLUSIONS: The thrombotic risk factors decreased levels of activated protein C resistance ratios and protein C, elevated homocysteine and the MTHFR 677 C-->T mutation are likely risk factors for placental vasculopathy. Combinations of these risk factors in one individual resulted in synergistic increase of risk.

A common mutation in the 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase gene as a new risk factor for placental vasculopathy.

OBJECTIVE: This study was undertaken to investigate whether the cytosine-to-thymine substitution at nucleotide 677 (C677T) in the 5, 10-methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase gene is a risk factor for placental vasculopathy (abruptio placentae or placental infarction with fetal growth restriction). STUDY DESIGN: This case-control study enrolled 165 women with placental vasculopathy and 139 matched control women with normal pregnancy outcomes. Measurements included fasting total plasma homocysteine concentration, serum and red blood cell folate concentrations, serum vitamin B(12) concentration, whole-blood vitamin B(6) concentration, and analysis of the 5, 10-methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase gene C677T mutation. RESULTS: The median total plasma homocysteine concentration was significantly higher in the study group than in the control group (P <.01; odds ratio >97.5th percentile, 4.66; 95% confidence interval, 1.55-14.0). Homozygous genotype for the mutated 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase gene was found in 12% of the study group and 5% of the control group (odds ratio, 2.45; 95% confidence interval, 1.00-6.02). CONCLUSIONS: Mild hyperhomocysteinemia was confirmed among women with placental vasculopathy, for which homozygosity for a mutated 5, 10-methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase gene was found to be a new risk factor. The risk of placental vasculopathy probably increases in conditions of low serum folate concentration.

Leon C. Chesley and hypertension in pregnant women.

Leon C. Chesley's first paper opened with the title 'Pregnancy in the patient with hypertensive disease'(1). Leon C. Chesley PhD, John E. Annitto, MD, MSc (Med), Jersey City, NJ, USA (from the Margaret Hague Maternity Hospital) [Am J Obstet Gynecol 1947;53:372-381]. We quote some lines from this important paper and pioneering work: "We have thought it worth while to survey our experience with pregnancy in women with hypertensive disease. There are relatively few such studies based upon any considerable series, and in most studies extant there has been a selective factor in that therapeutic abortion has been done in the more severely hypertensive patients. It has not been our policy to abort such women, and our large material therefore offers an almost unique opportunity for the study of the natural history of pregnancy in hypertensive women. From the opening of the hospital in October 1931 through to 1944 there were a total of 218 patients in whom recorded blood pressures established the diagnosis of 'hypertensive toxemia,' as defined by the American Committee on Maternal Welfare. A detailed analysis has been made of the 301 pregnancies in which these patients have been seen. The gross fetal loss: in prior pregnancies, 35%; in first hypertensive pregnancy, 38%; in subsequent pregnancies, 40%. Of 47 sisters of these hypertensive patients, who delivered here, 45% had at least one toxic pregnancy. Nearly 40% of the hypertensive patients showed drops in the blood pressure in midpregnancy. Proteinuria of some degree occurred in half of the pregnancies. Renal function was normal in 93% of the pregnancies. Premature separation of the placenta occurred in 5.6% of the pregnancies. Fetal loss increased with: higher initial blood pressure, second trimester rises in blood pressure, higher pressures near delivery, decreased renal function, proteinuria, and superimposed toxemia. There were six immediate maternal mortalities (2.0%) and seven late puerperal deaths. Thus the mortality was 20 times that of the whole hospital experience." From here we will start our "hypertensive journey".

Maternal homocysteine and chorionic vascularization in recurrent early pregnancy loss.

Defective chorionic villous vascularization has been suggested to be associated with embryonic death. There are no reports, however, describing chorionic vascular profiles in spontaneous miscarriage tissue. Therefore, we investigated chorionic villous vascularization by both histopathology and an image analysis system combined with CD34 immunohistochemistry in spontaneous miscarriage tissue of 19 women with recurrent early pregnancy loss (REPL). Subsequently, we studied the vascular profile parameters (median vascular area, perimeter, number of vascular elements per measured chorionic area, and the median area, perimeter and diameter per vascular element) in relation to the maternal plasma total homocysteine concentrations (an independent risk factor for REPL). The histopathological scores and the measured number of vascular elements per mm(2) chorionic tissue were not significantly different between women with elevated and those with normal total homocysteine concentrations. However, women with elevated total homocysteine concentrations (fasting >18.3 micromol/l and/or 6 h after methionine load >61.5 micromol/l) showed (per measured chorionic area) significant smaller median vascular areas and perimeters. The single chorionic vascular elements in these women had significant smaller median areas, perimeters and diameters. Furthermore, the fasting total homocysteine was negatively correlated with the perimeter of the vascular element (r = -0.54: P <0.05). In conclusion, in REPL, elevated maternal total homocysteine concentrations are associated with defective chorionic villous vascularization.

Homocysteine and folate levels as risk factors for recurrent early pregnancy loss.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the relative risk of recurrent early pregnancy loss for different total plasma homocysteine and serum folate concentrations. METHODS: In a case-control study, we measured homocysteine (fasting and afterload), folate (serum and red cells), pyridoxal 5'-phosphate, and cobalamin concentrations in 123 women who had at least two consecutive spontaneous early pregnancy losses each and compared concentrations with those of 104 healthy controls. RESULTS: Women with recurrent early pregnancy losses had significantly lower serum folate concentrations than controls, whereas the other measurements were similar to those of controls. Elevated homocysteine, fasting greater than 18.3 micromol/L and afterload greater than 61.5 micromol/L, was a risk factor for recurrent early pregnancy loss, with odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) of 3.6 (1.2, 12.7) and 2.7 (0.9, 8.8) in the group with recurrent miscarriages: 6.4 (1.9, 24.3) and 4.3 (1. 2, 17.3) in primary aborters, and 4.2 (1.3, 15.4) and 3.4 (1.0, 12. 8) in those with three or more miscarriages. The ORs (95% CIs) in the same study populations for serum folate concentrations less than 8.4 nmol/L were 2.1 (0.9, 4.8), 2.7 (1.0, 7.8), and 3.2 (1.3, 8.1), respectively. A significant dose-response relationship between serum folate concentrations and risk of recurrent early pregnancy loss suggested a protective effect by high serum folate concentrations. CONCLUSION: Elevated homocysteine and reduced serum folate concentrations were risk factors for recurrent spontaneous early pregnancy losses. Folic acid supplementation might be beneficial in women with histories of early pregnancy loss.

Perinatal audit on avoidable mortality in a Dutch rural region: a retrospective study.

OBJECTIVE: To analyse the mode and cause of perinatal mortality. SETTING: a rural Dutch region. STUDY DESIGN: Over a two-year period (1994-1995), data were collected in the 's Hertogenbosch region. A perinatal audit group investigated and classified the cause of death in an "intention to treat" and concensus model. We then analyzed who was responsible for the patient at the moment perinatal death occurred, or became inevitable. RESULTS: Out of 8509 newborns, 73 died between the 24th week of pregnancy till the 7th day post-partum (8.58 promille). Twenty-three cases (31.50%) were classified as probably or possibly avoidable. In the primary health care group (midwives, general practitioners) 6 out of 32 (18.75%), in the secondary care group (obstetricians) 15 out of 35 (44.86%) and in the tertiary care group 1 out of 4 (25.00%) were judged as probably or possibly avoidable. The degree of concensus in the perinatal audit committee was high (Kappa=0.9). IMPACT: The analysis of perinatal mortality identifies the cause of death and may help to improve perinatal health care. CONCLUSION: In this study, 31.55% of perinatal mortality was avoidable in the three levels of care. Intra-uterine growth retardation, congenital malformations and antepartum haemorrhage were the most determinant factors for perinatal mortality. The Dutch obstetrical care system as such, for example home deliveries, did not effect the perinatal mortality rate. Perinatal mortality rates presented by the Dutch Central Bureau of Statistics still shows a slight underregistration.

Homocysteine-lowering effect of 500 microg folic acid every other day versus 250 microg/day.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Elevated plasma total homocysteine (tHcy) concentrations are a risk factor for neural tube defects and vascular diseases. Supplementation with folic acid decreases tHcy. We investigated whether supplementation with 500 microg folic acid every other day is as effective in lowering tHcy as 250 microg folic acid each day. METHODS: In a 4-week intervention study, 22 healthy young women (18-40 years old) took either 500 microg folic acid every other day (500-microg/2d group) or 250 microg folic acid each day (250-microg/d group). Fasting blood was collected on days 0 and 28. RESULTS: Plasma folate concentrations increased by 11.4 nmol/l (6.8-15.9) in the 250-microg/d group and by 9.1 nmol/l (95% CI 1.9-16.3) in the 500-microg/2d group. These increases were not significantly different from each other. THcy concentrations decreased by 1.52 micromol/l (95% CI -2.09 to -0.95; p < 0.001) in the 250-microg/d group and by 0.88 micromol/l (-1.53 to -0.23; p < 0.05) in the 500-microg/2d group. The difference in decrease between the 250-microg/d group and the 500-microg/2d group was 0.64 micromol/l (p = 0.11). CONCLUSION: Although not conclusive, this study suggests that supplying subjects with folic acid each day decreases tHcy more effectively than a double dose every other day.

Homocysteine and human reproduction.

Homocysteine is an amino acid that is capable of disturbing the proper growth of cells. Hyperhomocysteinemia can lead to a non-closure of the neural tube. The underlying basis is a derangement of homocysteine metabolism due to a missense mutation of the MTHFR enzyme that has to catalyze the folate metabolic cycle furnishing sufficient methyl groups for DNA and tRNA synthesis. Folate can overcome the dysfunction of the mutation and the decreased activity of the thermolabile MTHFR. Homocysteine is also recognized as an independent risk factor for obstetrical vascular disease that can manifest itself in maternal veins (thrombosis), arteries (preeclampsia) or spiral arteries supplying the placenta (placental abruption). Low vitamin status (folic acid, vitamin B6 and B12), hyperhomocysteinemia, the MTHFR gene mutation C677T, and thrombotic factors like Protein C, Protein S. antithrombin III, factor V Leiden and Activated Protein C, are alone or in combination high risk factors for obstetrical vascular disease. Their values can be modulated by B-vitamin status and could be able to prevent disease from occurring or recurring. Placebo-randomized trials have been done in neural tube defects but are urgently needed in the vascular area. The common denominator of the effect of homocysteine on the embryo and the blood vessels (endothelium) could be sited in the process of proliferation of cells that need proper methyl groups for proper function.

Homocysteine metabolism and effects of folic acid supplementation in patients affected with spina bifida.

Folic acid supplementation around conception decreases the risk of having offspring with a neural tube defect. However, the aetiology is often still unknown. This study investigated whether spina bifida patients have lower blood folate and higher fasting and post-methionine-load plasma total homocysteine (tHcy) concentrations than control patients. Moreover, the effects of supplementation with 500 microg folic acid/d on folate and tHcy concentrations were determined. Spina bifida patients (n = 12) and disabled control patients (n = 15) received 4 weeks of placebo treatment followed by 4 weeks of intervention with 500 microg folic acid/d. Blood was collected at the start and after 4 and 8 weeks. A methionine-loading test was performed at the start and the end of the study. At baseline, no significant differences occurred between spina bifida and control patients. Folic acid supplementation significantly increased plasma and red blood cell folate concentrations in both groups. Folic acid decreased fasting tHcy concentrations in control patients by 1.6+/-0.5 micromol/l (p<0.01) and in spina bifida patients by 2.2 +/- 1.3 micromol/l (p = 0.10). This study does not show a derangement in homocysteine metabolism in spina bifida compared to control patients. Moreover, folic acid supplementation seems at least as effective in spina bifida patients as in controls.

Congenital heart defects and maternal derangement of homocysteine metabolism.

Methionine loading tests and folate, vitamin B(6), and vitamin B(12) analyses were performed in 27 mothers of children with congenital heart defects. Median fasting plasma homocysteine concentrations were significantly higher in the study group as compared with 56 control subjects (P =.0001). Maternal hyperhomocysteinemia may be a risk factor for congenital heart defects.

Fetal arrhythmia is not always a simple vagotonia.

Fetal arrhythmia (extrasystoles) is usually caused by vagotonia and thought to be innocuous. Four case reports are presented in which arrhythmia accompanied myocardial localization of tuberous sclerosis, fetal sepsis, fetal hypoxia and acidemia.

Nonsyndromic orofacial clefts: association with maternal hyperhomocysteinemia.

Maternal folic acid supplementation has been suggested to play a role in the prevention of nonsyndromic orofacial clefts, i.e., cleft lip +/- cleft palate. Using a case-control design, we investigated vitamin-dependent homocysteine metabolism in 35 mothers with nonsyndromic orofacial cleft offspring and 56 control mothers with nonmalformed offspring. A standardized oral methionine loading test was performed, in which fasting and afterload plasma total homocysteine, serum and red-cell folate, serum vitamin B12, and whole-blood vitamin B6 levels were determined. We found that both fasting (P < 0.01) as well as afterload (P < 0.05) homocysteine concentrations were significantly higher in cases compared to controls. Hyperhomocysteinemia, defined by a fasting and/or afterload homocysteine concentration above the 97.5th percentile, was present in 15.6% of the cases and in 3.6% of controls (odds ratio, 5.3 (1.1-24.2)). The median concentrations of serum (P < 0. 01) and red-cell (P < 0.05) folate were significantly higher, and vitamin B6 concentrations appeared to be significantly lower (P < 0. 05), in cases compared with controls. No significant difference was observed between groups for vitamin B12. These preliminary data offer evidence that maternal hyperhomocysteinemia may be a risk factor for having nonsyndromic orofacial cleft offspring.